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Contents

1. Introduction 1

2. The Characteristics of Black English 2

2.1 Phonetics 2

2.2 Grammar 3

3. The Influence on American Culture 7

3.1 The Influence on American English 7

3.2 The Influence on American Art 9

3.3 The Influence on American Literature 11

4. The Practical Significance of Black English 14

5. Conclusion 15

Acknowledgements 16

References 17

 

1．Introduction

Black English is a social dialect of American English, and it has been historically influenced by West African languages, General Southern American English and English-based creoles.

 This kind of English shares several characteristics with the forms of Creole English spoken by people throughout the whole world. In addition, it also has pronunciation, grammatical structures, and vocabulary in common with various West African languages.[1]198 Since a large number of Black people migrate to America and they have the percentage of more than 12%, [2]496the Black English has been popularized in this country. But in the American society, people seldom realize the influence and contribution of Black English and they never give the equal state to Black people. In fact, the language and culture of American reflect the contributions of the Black English in many aspects, such as linguistic, art and literature.

Nowadays, it is reasonably acceptable to say that Black English is not only an independent language but also making practical significance to American English and the American Culture. Researchers need to study the significance in details. So this paper intends to collect the study of the characteristics of Black English, and then summarize its influences on the American English. Since the change of language can lead changes in other aspects, such as Art and Literature aspects, this paper also states the influence in detailed options.

The method of this paper is reviewing the past study and surveys, not just from the linguistic point of view or the historical aspects of Black English, but from its formation and characteristics to demonstrate the existence and development of Black English and the practical significance. Through the analysis of Black English on the profound impact of American culture, the paper advances a view on the value of Black English and its prospects. Finally it puts forward the importance and necessity of enhancing learning and research on Black Culture as the continuous improvement and economic conditions of Black people.

2. The Characteristics of Black English

Black English, as a unique variant of English, has many differences with the Standard English based on the structure of language. And this paper tends to discuss the features of Black English in phonetics and grammar aspects. Since Black English is not just a simplified version of English, it has a unique language system with the same fixed structure as any other dialect all over the world.

2.1 Phonetics

Most Black people use a distinctive English variant. This black dialect has aroused many linguists’ interests. Repeatedly been labeled as “pidgin English”, Black English’s role in the development of American Culture can not be questioned. Black English as a source of Black Culture has always been paid more attention by linguists and sociologists in nowadays.

2.1.1 The Weakened Consonant

Because of the influence of West African, some voiced consonants are the same with their form of voiceless consonant. Word-final devoicing of /b/, /d/, and /g/ are always pronounced to //, //, //, and in most cases these phonemes are ignored. In order to make a difference between them, sometimes the vowel before the voiced consonants could be slightly re-read harder, take the “heat and heed”, “let and led” and “fate and fade” which is ended with the word “e” as examples.

In the syllables which are combined with consonants and vowels, some nasals can also be weakened, such as “sum, sun, sung”, and only the vowel // in the word which is somewhat influenced by the nasal.

2.1.2 The Omission of Consonant Clusters

    The simplification of Consonant Clusters is an obvious feature of Black English. The mutes in English are //, //, //, //, //, //, //, //, //, //. Black English often omit the mutes in the end of a word, and the word “side”// is always pronounced to “sigh”//. This kind of omission is not arbitrary, and it is decided by the situation of pronouncing a word: when the mute at the end only represents the morpheme is not connected, for example, the frequency of reserving // is higher than integral part of the stem in the word “borrow”. It will also be reserved if there is vowel behind the mute, such as the first “d” in the phrase “tried hard”.

2.1.3 The Pronunciation of // and //

The omission of // is a notable characteristic of Black English. In American, it is a tendency of underclass to omit // before vowels but not only of Black English.[3]297Because of this kind of omission, there is no differences between “guard-god”, “fort-fought” and “sore-saw” in Black English.When // is between two vowels, the syllable after it needn’t be pronounced, as “Paris” could be read as//; when there is a word beginning with vowel behind it, the // could also be regretted.

// is voiceless before the consonant, such as the word “health” always be pronounced to // and so on. However, when // is after the vowel as the end of the word, it is assimilated by the phoneme before it, such as the similar pronunciation with “mail” and “may”//. In addition, // is voiceless before // and //, as “always”//, “already” //. The more interesting thing is that they pronounce “will” to “ah”，for example, “I ah be there in a minute.” While the correct form in Standard English is “I will be there in a minute.”

2.1.4 The Pronunciation of // and //

In Black English, // is always pronounced as // and // is always pronounced as //, for example, “think” is pronounced to be //. While the // in the end of a word is transformed to //, and “mouth” is pronounced to be //, “nothing” is to //. In addition, the “th” in the middle of a word is always pronounced to be //, so “mother” is to //, “other” is to //, and “brother” is to //.

Actually, there are many more characters than mentioned in the paper, but we can recognize the differences of phonetics between Black English and Standard English just from the mentioned examples.

 Smith Thurman, a well-known expert in Black English, said that black dialect used same number of English phonemes with white, and the only difference is the distribution pattern of phoneme.[4]553

2.2 Grammar

    There are also many researches who have found the special usage in grammar of Black English. For example, the different meanings in the sentences “He workin’” and “He done worked” are hard to be explained by the Standard English. The first means “He is working 253.It also indicates the difference between Simple progressive and emphasized perfective. Not only the tense plays a different role in the grammar, there are many other points such as the relative usage of the word “be”, the negation and transmission of the word.

2.2.1 Tense

    Syntax best embodies the characteristics of Black English. In the verb-system, the differences between Black English and Standard English are most significant, which is most similar with pidgin and Creole their ancestors used. In Black English, the only duty of the verb in the sentence is to indicate the time concept of one or a few verbs, and other verbs can be expressed in verb stem. Sometimes when the context gives essential temporal support, the tense can be totally regretted. For example, in the following section of black sermons, the Preacher has made it clear that he is talking about the past, because both the life and devotion of Jesus have already happened: “The man Jesus，he come your sins! He the thieves and here. He die to walk the earth. He you from go among try to Save the unrighteous. The master say whoever will let him come!”

In addition, the singular verb of third person in Present Tense is not ended with “s”, for example, “She work in the factory”.

Black English has two Perfect Tenses: “Remote Perfect aspect” which is constituted by the “been” and “Immediate Perfect aspect” constituted by “done”. At this point, Black English and West African languages is extremely similar. [6]

    (i) The “been” in “remote perfect aspect” has a certain meaning of action in past tense. And this kind of perfect tense could be divided into two forms: I been know him(momentary action), I been knowin’-him.(ongoing action).

    (ii) “Immediate Perfect aspect” uses the auxiliary verb “done”. In modern Black English, following sentence are commonly used:

    ① I done go.

    ② I done went.

③ I done gone.

    These three are used in different situations:

    ① Used in the Immediate Present sentences.

    ② Used in the Simple Past sentences.

    ③ Used in the semi adjective structures.

2.2.2 Relative usage of “be”

The usage of“be”in Black English is also very special. If one action, thing or state does not happen frequently, the“be”in this sentence will be deleted. For example, “he in the house -watchin’ TV”. The abbreviation of the copula such as “is” and “are” can also be deleted. In addition, when in a passive sentence the passive voice is not expressed so clearly by the speaker, “be” can also be deleted, for example, “the factory built in 1958”. However if the action happens frequently, “be” can be used as the predicate verb in the sentence“they be out in the yard every night.”

When“be” and“do” work together means this kind of thing happens frequently in the Interrogative sentences and Emphatic sentences. For example, “Do you be playing all day?” (Do they play all day?) “Yeah, the boys do mess around a lot.”(Yeah, the boys do mess around a lot.) Famous linguist William Labov researched a lot in the Black English and concluded that: all the“be”which can appear in the forming of abbreviation can be deleted in Black English. [7]113Actually, the usage of “be”is far more complex than this conclusion which is easily got from the above descriptions. 

2.2.3 Negation

There are three different versions of negation in Black English: “ain’t”, “don’” and “dit’n”, which can be written as “ain’t”, “don’t” and “didn’t”. While the special usage of “ain’t” is a feature of Black English. Ain not is a negative form in past tense: I ain’t see. In a sentence, the negation always repeated: I ain’t see nothin’ like that no place. The meaning is equivalent of: I did not see anything like that anywhere. (I’ve never seen this kind of thing in any place.) When the predicate is not active verb, ain’t become the only symbol of negation. For example, I ain’t afraid of nothing. He ain’t gonna get no money out of it. Besides, it can be combined with "ing" and make up the present continuous tense. For example, we ain’t kidding and we ain’t quitting, we ain’t turning back. 

The function of “ain’t” in Black English is same with the “haven’t” in Standard English. Therefore the “We haven’t contacted each of her since last Christmas.” can be evolved to “We ain’t contacted each of her since last Christmas.” Sometimes, “ain’t” can replace the phrase “didn’t” in simple negation sentence. So in Black English, sentences can be like following forms: “She ain’t email me yesterday.” The young boy insisted, “I ain’t steal his wallet.” “I ain’t run like that in years.”

Multi-negation means there is not only one symbol of negation. Under this regulation, the pronoun needs to add some mark of negation.

For example: “She ain’t see any thing/ anyone at the railway station” can be changed into “She ain’t see nothing/ nobody at the railway station”. If the subject is “nobody” but not “he” or “Janet”, it will add negative determiner at the beginning of the sentence. This is called “negative inversion” by linguists. As a result, it is very common to hear that “Didn’t nobody say nothing to the peoples!”

3. The Influence on American Culture

An important contribution of Black English is the influence on the American Culture. The familiar “negro spiritual”, the unusual rhythms and the famous performance in movie and literature —all these originated with the slaves. It is said that what is the best and most original in American popular culture has its roots in Black English. Important black speakers, singers, actors and writers are too numerous to list.

3.1 The Influence on American English

He Ruigao expresses his opinion in his article Black English that there are some differences in certain aspects of language between Black English and American English. And he believes that after all, Black English is a variant of English, so the differences are only in some degree rather than fundamental, and do not affect the people’s contacts.

It is clear that there is a strong relationship between Black English and American English, while the distinct characters of Black English are not fully explained and its origins are still a matter of debate. One theory is that Black English arose from one or more slave creoles that arose from the trans-Atlantic African slave trade and the need for African captives to communicate among themselves and with their captors.  According to this theory, these captives’ language developed into what are called pidgins, simplified mixture of two or more languages. As pidgins are from closely contact between members of different language communities, the slave trade would have been exactly such a situation. Not until the time of the American Civil War did the language of the slaves become familiar to a large number of educated whites. As the time passes, the Black English gradually plays an important role in the United States and U.S. Culture.

3.1.1 The Forming of Black English

In the slave society, there are so many different languages that the natives on two sides of the river cannot understand each other. But the safest way for them to keep their authority is to trade with the different nations on both sides of the river. The famous writer, Cotton Mather, claimed to have been very familiar with his slaves’ speech, and his imitative writing shows features presented in many Creole languages and even in modern Black English. By the time of the American Revolution, varieties among slave creoles were not quite mutually intelligible.

Not until the time of the American Civil War did the language of the slaves become familiar to a large number of educated whites. In Army Life in a Black Regiment (1870), Thomas Wentworth Higginson detailed many features of his soldiers' language. Shana Poplack has also provided corpus-based evidence from isolated enclaves in Samaná and Nova Scotia lived by descendants of migrations of early Black English-speaking groups. All of these researches suggest that the grammar of early Black English is closer to that of contemporary British dialects than modern urban Black English to current American dialects. We can find that the modern language is a result of divergence from mainstream varieties, rather than the result of creolization from a widespread American creole. 

3.1.2 The Relations with the American English

In United States, blacks worked in this land with the identity of slaves and inherited some habits from the African culture and language, and thus gradually formed a black American society with unique culture. While the communication between the black slaves and the slavers became a major hub linking the two cultures, and produced a subtle influence to American English, which mainly reflected in English words borrowed, as well as the meaning of the word twists and turns, and the absorption of idioms. Its pronunciation is, in some respects, common to Southern American English, which is spoken by many African Americans and many non-African Americans in the United States.

There is little regional variation among speakers of Black English.89 In order to understand the United States and American culture, and to acquire its development, Blacks melt their culture, such as language, literature and art, with those of the United States. Later, Black English is not only for Black people, it is still widely used by a number of regional dialects. Even in literature works, authors often use Black English to show the hero's nationality, identity and upbringing.

Not only the phonetics and grammar of Black English prove the influence to American language, but we can also achieve it from the assertion of Black English. For example, “the blacker the berry, the sweeter the juice” means “she is very mature and favorable”. Another example, “you aren’t got a pot to piss in on a window to throw I tout of” means that you are very pool. “If I tell you a hen hip snuff, look under its wing and find a whole box” means that all you said is true. “You never miss yo water till yo well run dry” means that “you will never feel the importance of water until you are very thirst”.[10]6-7 The representative assertion is very lively and meaningful, suggesting the wisdom of the Black English.

3.2 The Influence on American Art

When Blacks live in Africa, they have the hobby to sing and dance during laboring. But then they are later taken away as slaves by the colonists to the southern United States plantation. They work in the fields wearing shackles and live in the primitive hut in the deserted swamp and jungle. But due to this kind of suffering, they create a valuable oral literature including hymns and blues and other Black Art, which has made an outstanding contribution to the culture to the United States.

3.2.1 The Integration with Music 

    It is generally believed that music of blacks has some distinctive forms from American music like American Ragtime, Blues, Jazz, Musical and Country music. Ragtime was first played by a black Anonymous piano, which was very popular in the late 19th century to early 20th century. It uses segmentation rhythm, trying to evolve from the popular dance music of blacks, and then Ragtime music appears. Scott. Joplin is one of the Ragtime representatives, and his performance of “Maple Leaf pull tone” has been a smash hit, which is so famous that all of the Ragtime pianist would play in their shows.

Blues is from field horn and songs with a strong feeling of African tradition and its tunes are always sad. The most famous Blues singer is Bessie Smith, known as Blues Queen. When Ragtime, Blues and other tunes with rich colors of Africa's influence add together with the elements in Europe, the Jazz comes into being.  

With the integration of grammar, the ways people sing a song become various in American. Many young people jump into the swim of “rap” and “hip-hop”, which is considered as a really fashion style to express one song and the soul. While among the most famous masters, more than 90 percent are black people, such as the episode in Prison Break.

The word “rap” meant “blame” in the middle of 18th century and was always used in phrase in the 19th, “to take the rap” meant “to take the blame”. After the civil war, black people used it to blame white people and requested the equality with them. And finally it replaced the word “conversation” to be popular among the white teenagers. There are many simplifications of words in “rap” which become totally different with American English. For example, the “er” in the end of word is changed into “a”, “nigger” into “nigga”.[11]185 Besides, the “ks” or “cks” in the end of a word can be replaced by “x” because they have the same pronunciation. All of these examples prove that it has become a new version of grammar in American English. For example, the “re” or “e” which can’t be heard during a speedy song are always omitted such as “more” and “mo”, “for” and “fo”, or the number “4”. The omission of “g” in “ing” is another new grammar in American English.

Some words also change its pronunciation. For example, in the word “through”, “gh” never being pronounced is know to all, since we pronounce “th” // in stead of // there is no difference in pronunciation with the word “true”.

In the “rap”, the Black English has many distinct characters and its lyrics tend to be more fashion and creative. Most of these new word are very short or the abbreviation of some long words so that even the local Americans can not understand. In order to keep its character of fashion, “rap” uses word on the point of fashion. Therefore, the characteristics of Black English are the foundation of “rap”, which makes it no longer a simple style of music but a diverse style.

3.2.2 The Integration with Film 

Film is an integrated form of art, with combination of test technology, art and commerce, and the thought of images it brings to the human mind is revolutionary. Because it's easy to be accepted, the film is destined to be a mass media on hundreds of millions people when it appears. In a short century, Hollywood becomes a symbol of American mass culture, and the influence on American society is immeasurable.

Film expresses and promotes the life style and values of Americans. During the war era, it boosts moral e of the soldiers. While in the Depression era, it could replace the cash of the American dream and reflected the public's ideals and dreams. In this case, blacks also express their dream to achieve the equality in the American society through the film, such as Shaw shank Redemption, the Pursuit of Happiness and Death Pact and so on. Because of the success of these works and the influence on future, some later generations continued to collect and summarize the classic dialogue in these black films, and to commemorate the black culture for future generations to study at the same time.

There are two characteristics of grammar which can be easily found in the black films.First is the invariant of “be”, and second is the multi-negation of“ain’t”.The invariant of“be”is used before verb, adjective, noun and passive voice in Black English.

(i)Your gas bill be high, don’t it? (Your gas bill is usually high, isn’t it?)

(ii) My boss be in his office by 8am. (My boss is usually in his office by 8am.)

(iii)It don’t be dogged. I grease it and oil it. (It isn’t usually dogged, I grease it and oil it.)

Laurel Avenue (1993) is a story about a family’s effort to counter drug, faction and violence in order to achieve the “American Dream”. In the film, when Rashhawn’s uncle blamed on his sailing drug, he said that “What the hell I be giving you money fuh[for ]？” while his word can also be translated to “Do you know why I always give you money ? ”

It is worthy to mention that this kind of grammar in the film is also very popularized by young Latinos. Therefore, the Black English users have crossed the racial boundaries and expanded to the crowd who are favor of hip hop culture.

The multi-negation of “ain’t” can be fully realized in the most influential black filmmaker Spike Lee’s masterpiece Do the Right Thing. The story happened in Brooklyn, New York, and demonstrated an explosion caused by the ethnic problems. There are a large number of unique performances of Black English in the dialogues:   “Ain’t no brothers on the wall? I ain’t run like that in years. Don’t call me no bum. Jade don’t come here no more, all right? Don’t call me nothing.”

Although many so-called “not standard”regulations of Black English have been criticized for a long time, its expression is an important means to promote Black Culture of the Hollywood directors and become a beautiful view in American films.

3.3 The Influence on American Literature

In the destiny of black, there must be a clearly visible way, on which they have worked with effort to win dignity and literary. Through their effort, it exhibited such a road as well as those marks in relation to life along the way: once in Black history, unforgettable pain is essential for the experience to the results today. Black Literature, in the United States and the world, has been mainly as slaves, especially in countries outside Africa.

The Black English writer Toni Morrison was born in black family, and later achieved today’s scholars and writer’s identity by reading. In 1993, because of her “making the important part of American society much more vigorously through the rich poetic imagination and expression”, she won the Nobel Prize for Literature, and became the only black women writer in history to be honored.

Not only the Black Literature but also the American Literature has these characters of Black English in their works.

The Sound and the Fury (1929) is written by a famous American writer William Faulkner (1897-1962). The first part, “April 7th, 1928”, describes the conversation and action between the children in the farm waiting for the coming of procession.

“I skeered I going to holler,” T.P said.

“Get on the box and see is they started.”

“They haven’t started because the band hasn’t come yet.” Caddy said.

“They ain’t going t have no band.” Frony said.

“How do you know?” Caddy said.

“I know what I knows,” Frony said.

“You don’t know anything,” Caddy said.

“She went to the tree.”

“Put me up,” Versh.

“Your paw told you to stay out that tree,” Versh said.

“That was a long time ago,” Caddy said,

“I except he’s forgotten about it, besides he said to mind me tonight. Didn’t he say to mind me tonight?”

“I’m not going to mind you, T .P and Frony are not going to either,” Jason said.[12]4

The children in this conversation turn out to be totally different between T.P, Frony, Versh and Caddy, Jason. The dialogue of the first three people has some characters of Black English. For example, “be” in the sentence “I (am) skeered (that) I (am ) going to holler” which is the distinct signal of Black English. On the contrary, the conversation of Candy and Jason do not omit this part as Jason says that “I’m not going to mind you，TP and Frony are not going to either”. And the singular verb of third person even does not have any difference with first person or any one else in the sentence “I know what I knows”. In addition, the mixture of // and // of the word “git” in the sentence “got on the box” is very common in Black English. It turns out that T.P, Frony and Versh are children of black in the farm, while Caddy and Jason are children of the farmer.

On the other hand, many black people like Frederick and William, not only struggle to learn the culture, but also use the pen as a weapon after the flight. They took active part in the abolitionist movement and expressed positive public opinions. Slave owner always treat Black people as the inferior race, so Black people’s ability to carry out literature itself is a powerful evidence of that lie, let alone the rich ideological content in their articles. And all of these proof that Black people is an excellent nation with a historical cultural tradition on the literature and their language also plays an irreplaceable role in the development of American literature.

4. The Practical Significance of Black English

In1863， 2 years before the war ended, Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation freed the slaves in the Confederate states. Shortly after the war ended in 1865, the thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution freed all slaves. A few years later, the fourteenth and fifteenth Amendments gave the former slaves full civil rights, including giving African-American men the right to vote.[13]77

In politics, more blacks are voting, and more are getting elected. Since 40 years ago, the Black middle-class group has risen from scratch and grown in their standard of living. There are no difference in professional skills and educational background with the white middle class. Outstanding representatives of Black people appear in many areas of the United States, such as the Black mayor, governor, ministers and members of Congress, and all of them are no longer surprise to us. The much more important thing is that Democratic candidate Barack Obama won the U.S. presidential election in 2008 to become the first real chance to win the presidency in the Black.

Blacks are also trying to improve their financial position by going into professions or starting their own business. There are now more than 600,000 black-owned companies in the U.S. and blacks are more numerous than ever in the professions-as teachers, doctors, lawyers, judges and ministers.

In 1952, Ralph Ellison, a black author, wrote a book about blacks in the U.S. called the Invisible Man. Since the 1960s, blacks have become more visible on TV and in movies and magazines. Networks, filmmakers and advertisers now realize that black consumers want to see their race represented. Today, blacks in significant numbers work as newscasters, TV actors and actresses, and movie stars.

Huang Weifeng says in his African American English on a Number of Historical Issues that, “Only when the racism in American society has been completely eradicated from the mind, the Black Cultural expressions of Black English can really be recognized.”81

5. Conclusion

“Black English” is widely used as the name because it is used by Black people. In fact, its user of this language is far beyond our imagination. In addition to the external community in the black population, it is also used by lower middle and low classes in America. It has profound impacts on American culture and communication in various aspects, especially with the continuous improvement of their political, economic and cultural status, and Black English has been paid more and more attention. In view of this, the paper starts to explore the formation and characteristics of its existence and development. It is said that the view of helping people understand the Black Culture correctly, the concept of eliminating the racial discrimination and enhancing the awareness to protect national culture plays an important role to cultural exchanges and cultural diversity.

The above discussion of Black English is by no means comprehensive but it can serve our purpose to improve the regulation and state of Black English. The significance of studying the nature of Black English is really multifaceted. While the most direct one is the significance for lingu istic research. The attitude to the question that whether Black English is a dialect or a language determines the methods of research. This paper argues that Black English is essentially a separate system and its significance to the American Culture. It should be researched as an independent study of language. [17]34

Undoubtedly, the Black English makes Black people more dramatic in the movies. The syntax rules and special vocabulary of Black English, which are incompatible with the mainstream of English, become the foundation of their culture with their bold dance and passive music. Although most black people using Black English live in the southern United States and the countries, those well-educated middle-class blacks also use Black English in some informal gatherings.

With the black music, novels and movies continuously mix into the mainstream of American society, the syntax rules and special vocabulary of Black English begin to be accepted by American English and become parts of the American culture. Because of the worldwide spread of English and increasingly prosperous Black Culture, the Black English will be more widely active in screen as a mature variation of English and an important way to display the diverse culture of the United States.

Acknowledgements

My initial thanks go to my tutor, Wu Qing, who patiently supervised my dissertation and was at times very willing to offer me illuminating advice or suggestions. Without her help, I could not have finished this dissertation.

I am also indebted to other teachers and my classmates who have not only offered me their warm encouragements but also shared with me their ideas and books.

       My greatest personal debt is to my grandparents and parents, who have cultivated a soul of sensitivity, hospitality, and honesty out of me, and offered a harbor of happiness and sweetness for me.

The remaining weakness and possible errors of the dissertation are entirely my own.

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[13] 張衛(wèi)平. 美國制度與文化[M]. 中國人民大學出版社, 2006.

[14] 黃衛(wèi)峰. 對現代英語詞匯學的兩處質疑[J]. 云夢學刊, 2003.

[15] 侯維瑞. 英國英語與美國英語[M]. 上海外語教育出版社, 1992.

[16] 張衛(wèi)平. 美國制度與文化[M]. 中國人民大學出版社, 2006.

[17] 葛詠濤. 美國文化風云人物[M]. 四川大學出版, 2007.

 

誠 信 承 諾

我謹在此承諾：本人所寫的畢業(yè)論文《論黑人英語對美國文化的影響及其現實意義》均系本人獨立完成，沒有抄襲行為，凡涉及其他作者的觀點和材料，均作了注釋，若有不實，后果由本人承擔。

 

篇（2）

關鍵詞： 論文標題；經濟學；體裁分析；對比研究；二語寫作

Key words： research article titles; economics; genre analysis; contrastive analysis; second language writing

中圖分類號：G23文獻標識碼：A文章編號：1006-4311（2011）18-0304-03

0引言

近十余年來，隨著對學術語篇研究的興起，語言學家越來越重視體裁分析方法在這一領域的應用，并形成了以John Swales （1990） 為代表的語步分析法，其對學術語篇前言進行了實證研究提出了CARS Model。隨后引發(fā)了學者們的濃厚興趣，他們將注意力集中于學術語篇的不同部分，例如，Lores （2004）和Martin（2003）研究了學術語篇的摘要部分，Homes（1997）研究了學術論文討論部分，Yang和Allison （2003）研究了學術論文的結論部分，等等。本文將針對學術論文的標題部分進行對比研究，其方法也是體裁分的實證研究方法，目的在于發(fā)現國內外經濟學期刊英語標題的結構特點，并能夠對中國學者撰寫英語標題提供參考。

1學術論文標題研究綜述

80年代末以來，以“體裁分析之父”（Pérez-Llantada， 2004：140）John Swales （1990） 為代表的體裁分析法（genre analysis）的研究范式逐漸確立其在學術語篇的語言學研究中的地位。在1990年，John Swales 指出標題是學術體裁研究中被忽視的一個方面之一。隨著學者們對標題研究的關注與日俱增，研究成果不斷涌現。Yitzhaki （1997）比較了18種不同人文學科期刊的論文標題中的實詞數量目的在于檢驗學術論文標題的信息密集性。Busch-Lauer (2000) 分別對比了醫(yī)學和語言學領域內的英語和德語標題，發(fā)現醫(yī)學領域內的標題長度比語言學內的論文標題的字數明顯要多一些，并且確證了以德語為母語的學者習慣于用德語的思維方式撰寫標題，同時發(fā)現了所有的標題在兩個領域內的作用都是交際功能的作用。Laurence Anthony（2001）通過對計算機領域期刊中600個論文標題的長度，標點使用，介詞使用和詞頻進行了研究，結果表明，計算機學科的論文標題有其自身的特點，例如，他發(fā)現介詞和冠詞在此類標題中出現的頻率最高，其中介詞for在所選的6種期刊中的4種當中出現的頻率最高。最終得出的結論是計算機科學領域內的標題有其自身的特點，但是同時也提出，論文標題的特點因學科不同而有差異，這樣的普遍性結論有待進一步的研究。隨后在2002年Yitzhaki又研究了24個重要期刊的論文標題與論文長度的關系，同時做了歷時比較的研究，發(fā)現文章長度和論文標題長度的關系是因科學類別的不同而不同，在所謂“硬”科學內標題長度與文章長度的相關性較“軟”科學更強。Haggan （2004）則是同時分別比較研究了文學，語言學和理科科學的論文標題的結構特點。她將標題按形式分為句子型，名詞型和短語型三類。研究結果顯示出三個不同領域內的標題都互不相同，各有特點，同時指出標題的功能在于引起讀者閱讀文章的興趣。Hartley （2005c，2007a，2007b）從不同方面探討了論文標題的特點或功能：一、指出論文標題應當同時具有傳遞信息和吸引讀者的作用；二、將論文標題按功能重新分類，共有12類并且分析了各類的特點和功能；三、研究了冒號在學術論文中的使用偏好。最近的研究是Soler （2007）對研究型學術論文和綜述型學術論文的標題結構的實證研究。在570個標題中，480個為研究型論文標題，90個是綜述型論文標題，時間跨度從1996年至2002年，涉及的學科領域是生物學和社會學，她將標題按結構分為句子型，問句型，名詞詞組型和復合型，同時還對標題的長度進行了研究，結果表明，綜述型標題的長度在兩個領域都非常的短，復合型標題是社會科學體裁研究型論文標題的特點。句子型標題是研究型論文標題的文章類型的特點，尤其是生物學領域內的研究型論文標題的特點。

國內的標題研究主要分為兩類：漢英單語種獨立研究和漢語標題的英譯。例如王英格（1993）研究了英語學術論文標題的語法和修辭特點?；亓郑?007）對圖書情報學類核心期刊論文標題進行了計量研究，共對42989篇文獻的標題進行統(tǒng)計分析，涉及到標題長度，句型以及標題中相關詞匯的研究，如題首詞，題尾詞，關鍵詞等。而論文標題的漢英翻譯的研究有，段萍和顧維萍（2002）的關于醫(yī)學論文的標題和摘要的漢譯英的常見錯誤的分析的研究，周永模（2002）的關于哲學和人文社會科學的論文標題的漢譯英的標準的探討。另外，值得一提的是王成宇（2003）對英漢雙語的疑問型學術論文標題進行的對比研究。

綜上所述，學術論文的標題研究成果逐漸豐碩，本文將就前人的研究成果繼續(xù)深化和推進學術論文標題的研究，基本的研究思路是以體裁為切入點，即語言學類研究型學術論文；英英對比，其特點在于中國學者的英文標題和國際學者的英文標題的對比；以及采用實證研究方法。

2研究方法

首先本文選取了中美經濟學兩本在各自學術共同體中的權威期刊：中國的《經濟學（季刊）》（China Economic Quarterly (CEQ)）和美國麻省理工學院（MIT）的Quarterly Journal of Economics (QJE)。建立了一個含有548個英語科研原創(chuàng)論文標題的語料庫，其中CEQ 中隨機選取311 個標題，QJE 中隨機選取237個標題。按照語料庫的建庫原則以及對比語言學的可比性原則，標題的選取時間跨度為2004至2009年（由于研究時間限制，2009年只收集部分標題），且不包括書評類以及其他體裁類型的文章標題。其次本文將所選標題分為五大類：名詞詞組型（Noun Phrase [NP]）, 復合型（Compound [CP]）即一個標題由兩部分組成，中間被冒號或其他符號隔開, 句子型（Full-sentence [FS]）, 動詞詞組型（Verbal Phrase [VP]）, 以及介詞詞組型（Prepositional Phrase [PP]）。另外，本文還進一步細分了名詞詞組型標題和復合型標題，同時還統(tǒng)計了本語料庫中的NP和CP標題在近五年內(2004-2008)的變化趨勢。

3研究結果與討論

標題應當體現信息性和經濟性原則。信息性是指標題應當全面準確反映論文的內容。經濟性是指標題應當用最少的詞表達最豐富的意義。表1顯示了兩本期刊英語標題的平均長度。明顯的差異在于國內的CEQ論文標題要比國外的QJE論文標題用詞偏長。就其原因在于英語不是中國人的母語，并且中國學者在撰寫英語論文標題時會受到中國文化的影響（Connor， 1996）。另外，無論CEQ論文標題是出于投稿人的翻譯或重新用英語撰寫，都會受到原來漢語標題的影響，我們的統(tǒng)計發(fā)現，漢語標題會經常出現“論”、“研究”以及“探討”之類的標題標記（尹世超，2001）。同時，國內學者撰寫的英語論文標題會將這類標記詞翻譯出來形成“The study of …” 或“The analysis of …”之類表達形式。這無形中會增加英語標題的長度而不會因此增加標題的信息含量。

標題的功能有四種（尹世超，2001）：稱名功能，概括功能，吸引功能和引導功能。如果綜合考慮標題的兩個原則和四個功能，那么復合型標題是最理想的標題形式。表2的復合型標題頻度百分比正好體現了這一選擇在英語環(huán)境下的要求。按照Swales和Feak（1994）的觀點此類標題（英語）的構成為：問題-解決（problem-solution），一般-詳細（general-specific），話題-方法（topic-method）和主要-次要（major-minor）。這一構成就能夠是撰寫者不通過語言手段而在兩部分之間建立聯系，達到信息性、經濟性和吸引功能的統(tǒng)一。由于標題的基本功能是稱名功能所以名詞詞組型標題在兩本期刊中都占有較多的頻度。有趣的發(fā)現是，美國的QJE期刊論文標題出現了較多的句子型標題，共15個占該期刊語料的6.33%，以及較多的動詞詞組型標題，共8個占該期刊語料的3.38%。

兩本期刊使用最多的名詞詞組型標題都是NP+PP結構，即一個核心名詞后接一個介詞短語的結構。但是，相比較而言，CEQ期刊論文NP標題的結構相對較復雜。這一點似乎驗證了Connor（1996）的觀點，寫作是一種深嵌于文化的行為。即國內學者撰寫英語論文標題時，會采用復雜的介詞短語限定討論話題的形式，而國外學者會直接采用其他策略比如說采用CP型標題結構。這同時似乎也表明非母語寫作者會在使用第二外語時無意識的會凸顯過濾某些文化因素，這些因素會表現在語言層面，比如說，復雜的介詞短語結構標題。

在標題具有稱名這一點上，中美期刊論文撰寫者又一次達成一致，即標題的前后兩部分都是名詞詞組結構[NP:NP]。但是QJE期刊CP論文標題并不僅僅是依賴這一結構，作為美國學術共同體的研究者，他們會更多關注英語標題的其他功能如吸引功能，所以該類標題在QJE中呈現出較多的其他次級結構，如Q:NP[問句：名詞詞組]型。本語料庫中，最強烈的對比在于，QJE中會出現PP:NP類型標題和Q:Q類型標題，而CEQ中卻無此類型標題出現；另外，在CEQ中會出現PP:NP和Q:VP類型標題，但是在QJE中，撰寫者不會才取此類型去撰寫標題。此現象有待于進一步的大規(guī)模的語料收集和分析。

從上圖可以看出，NP和CP標題在五類標題中在近五年內呈增加趨勢。有趣的發(fā)現是，CP標題在兩本期刊中在2007年增至最多，相反的NP標題在兩本期刊中減至最少。相對于2007年來說，兩本期刊中的CP標題在2008年有所減少，而NP標題有所增加。最終的結果表明，經濟學類期刊英語論文標題NP和CP類型出現的頻度趨近于相同，但總體呈增加態(tài)勢。

4結論

本研究表明經濟學類中美兩本期刊的英語論文標題存在明顯差異。這些差異是由于文化社會因素造成。本研究的意義在于為經濟學類同行撰寫英語論文標題提供幫助。進一步的研究可細致深入地探討經濟學類英語論文標題的用詞特點。

參考文獻：

[1]Anthony L. 2001. Characteristic Features of Research Article Titles in Computer Science [J]. I.E.E.E. Transactions on Professional Communication, 44(3): 187-194.

[2]Busch-Lauer, Ines-A. 2000. “Titles of English and German Research Papers in Medicine and Linguistics Theses and Research Articles” [M]. Analysing Professional Genres, (Edited by Anna Trosborg), Benjamins Publishing Company, 2000.

[3]Connor, U. 1996. Contrastive Rhetoric: Cross-cultural aspects of second-language writing [M]. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

[4]Dillon, J. T. 1980. In pursuit of the colon: a century of scholarly progress: 1880-1980 [J]. Journal of Higher Education, 53 (1): 93-99.

[5]Haggan, M. 2004. Research paper titles in literature, linguistics and science: dimensions of attraction [J]. Journal of Pragmatics, 36: 293-317.

[6]Halliday, M. A. K. 1994. Introduction to Functional Grammar, Second Edition [M]. London: Edward Arnold.

[7]Hartley, J. 2005. To Attract or To Inform: What Are Titles For? [J].Journal of Technical Writing. and Communication, 32(2): 203-213.

[8]Hartley, J.. 2007a. Planning that title: practices and preferences for titles with colons in academic articles [J]. Library & Information Science Research, 29: 553-568.

[9]Hartley, J.. 2007b. There’s more to the title than meets the eye: exploring the possibilities [J]. Journal of Technical Writing & Communication, 37(2): 95-101.

[10]Pinkham, J.. 2000. The Translator's Guide to Chinglish [M]. 北京:外語教學與研究出版社.

[11]Lewison G, Hartley J.. 2005. What's in a title? Number of words and the presence of colons [J]. Scientometrics, 63: 341-56.

[12]Pérez-Llantada, C.. 2004. An interview with John Swales [J]. IB?RICA, 8: 139-148.

[13]Soler, V.. 2007. Writing titles in science: An exploratory study [J]. English for Specific Purposes, 26(1): 90-102.

[14]Swales, J. M.. 1990. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings [M]. New York, Cambridge: CUP.

[15]Swales, J. M. 2004. Research Genres: Explorations and Applications [M]. New York: Cambridge: CUP.

[16]Swales, J.M. & Feak, C.B. 1994. Academic Writing for Graduate Students: Commentary [M]. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

[17]Thompson, G. 1996. Introducing Functional Grammar [M]. London: Arnold.

[18]Yitzhaki, M. 2002. Relation of Title Length of a Journal Article to the Length of the Article [J]. Scientometrics, 54 (3): 435-447.

[19]段萍，顧維萍.醫(yī)學論文標題與摘要漢譯英常見錯誤分析[J]. 中國翻譯，2002.

[20]化柏林.圖書情報學核心期刊論文標題計量分析研究[J].情報學報，2007，26(3).

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篇（3）

在課堂上，本人情緒飽滿，充滿激情，聲音洪亮清晰，授課時語音語調起伏變化，肢體語言豐富。不僅讓學生集中注意力，提高學習效率而且善于引導學生情緒，調動其積極性，使學生在課堂上更加投入。 本著外語學院“聽說領先教學法"，“任務驅動教學法”和“交際教學法”的原則，本人上課時候特別注意師生互動和聯系實際。經常組織小組討論，鼓勵學生獨立發(fā)言，力求學生參與度達到100%。如在聽力教學中，每次課前布置教學任務，課上進行檢測，技巧講解中及時穿插聽力訓練，對于聽力過程中出現的生詞讓學生自己課前自查， 課上朗讀并解釋意思，老師給與必要指導，及時總結規(guī)律。在文學教學中，將電影片段，神話故事，圖片等與選段詞匯結合起來，讓學生既擴大詞匯，同時又感受到學習的樂趣。同時在進行選段分析時，盡量拓展學生的思維，將文章主題與相關社會現象和文化結合起來，組織學生圍繞社會問題進行討論，并給與一定的指導，力求幫助學生樹立良好的社會價值觀。如學習羅素的《我為什么而活》， 給學生放映《活著》片段，讓學生結合社會現實探討人為什么而活，以及讀書到底有什么用。學習《傲慢與偏見》時，要求學生先了解作者的婚姻觀，并結合《蝸居》，引導學生樹立正確的婚姻觀。

課堂上本人是富有激情且嚴謹的老師，課后是學生親切、知心的朋友。學生們都喜歡在課堂外與我聊天，交流學習和生活心得。本人也總是及時獲取學生信息，獲取教學反饋，并及時更新教學計劃。比如，06級畢業(yè)班同學在上了三周課后， 有部分學生要求將教學重心轉到專業(yè)八級的輔導上， 本人于是對所有三個班學生展開了問卷調查，結果顯示99%的學生希望老師能講解專八知識。雖然覺得學生有些短視，本人還是及時調整了教學計劃，花了大量時間搜集專八人文知識資料并自編了英、美國文學串講資料。在聽力測驗和專八知識自測中，發(fā)現有個別學生因成績不理想而情緒低落，還有的個別學生有偏激和消極的想法，本人及時開導和鼓勵他們振作起來。對個別學生進行學習方法上的單獨輔導，或者給他們布置適當的額外學習任務。

本人堅信：教師不能只是教書匠，更應該是學生成長過程中的扶持者和引導者。無論是校外還是校內，無論是課堂內還是課堂外， 教師都要通過各種方式來幫助和激勵學生，促使學生養(yǎng)成主動式、探究式和合作式學習習慣，從而獲得學業(yè)成功、就業(yè)成功和未來的事業(yè)成功。

二、在搞好教育教學實踐的同時，教師必須非常重視專業(yè)理論的學習和教學經驗的總結，力爭在科研上多出成果。

本人很榮幸獲得外語學院李道順院長的青睞， 被院長收為科研指導對象， 李院長成為本人的科研導師。本人虛心求教， 積極向上，追求進步，經常與李院長就科研工作進行相關交流與學習，受益頗多。本人積極發(fā)揮外語學院科研骨干的帶頭作用，經常與同事就論文撰寫和教材編寫進行交流。作為外語學院精品課程研究小組成員，積極討論精品課程的建設問題，了解課程建設對科研的指導作用。

本人積極向本校科研十佳工作者學習，努力鉆研科研方法，力爭在科研上趕上并超越他們。 科研突飛猛進。 本學期共發(fā)表了9篇論文，其中《成功素質教育下綜合英語精品課程建設探究》等3篇文章發(fā)表在《山東文學》、《時代文學》和《大家》北大核心期刊上； 論文《改革專業(yè)英語考試模式推進成功素質教育》發(fā)表在國家一級教育類權威期刊《中國校外教育》上；其他文章大都為本科學報論文如《湖北大學成人教育學院學報》、《湖北廣播電視大學學報》 、《濰坊教育學院學報》、《赤峰學院學報》等；本人還了解了國際4大檢索論文的撰寫知識和投稿指南， 撰寫了2篇高水平的全英語論文， 并投稿相關國際會議， 成功通過審稿，將分別于2010年6月和8月見刊，并將被EI 和ISTP 雙檢索。同時參與了3部英語專業(yè)本科教材的編寫，分別是《大學英語寫作教程》，該書已經付梓， 另2部《大學英語口語教程》 （第二冊和第四冊）正在編寫中。

篇（4）

中圖分類號：G424 文獻標識碼：A

1 商務英語概況

商務英語是以英語為載體商務知識為核心的一種專門用途英語（English for Specific Purposes 即 ESP）。本文擬對對外經濟貿易大學和廣大外語外貿大學商務英語專業(yè)人才培養(yǎng)模式差異性進行比較，希望通過比較能對商務英語專業(yè)設置合理的培養(yǎng)方案提供一些參考

2 差異性比較

2.1 培養(yǎng)目標差異性比較

（1） 培養(yǎng)目標。

對外經濟貿易大學：本專業(yè)旨在培養(yǎng)具有扎實的英語知識和技能，掌握較寬廣的人文與社會科學以及國際商務基礎理論知識，具有較強的跨文化交流能力，適應各類企事業(yè)單位從事國際商務活動需要的高素質專門人才。

廣東外語外貿大學：培養(yǎng)具有扎實的英語語言基礎、嫻熟的英語交際能力、良好的文化素養(yǎng)、系統(tǒng)的商務知識、寬闊的國際視野、善于跨文化交際，適應經濟全球化競爭，能勝任國際商務管理、國際貿易、國際金融等部門工作的國際商務專業(yè)人才。

（2） 具體要求。

對外經濟貿易大學：①掌握扎實的英語知識與技能。②掌握國際商務基本理論，熟悉國際貿易相關專業(yè)知識和政策法規(guī)。③必須選修一門第二外語且達到學校要求的學習標準。④掌握比較寬廣的中西方政治、經濟、歷史、文化知識。⑤熟練掌握必要的計算機應用技能。⑥掌握獲取專業(yè)學術信息的科學方法，具備獨立從事英語研究的基本能力。

廣東外語外貿大學：①具有扎實的英語語言基礎和熟練的聽、說、讀、寫、譯能力，通過英語專業(yè)八級考試。②熟悉英語國家文化，具備較強的跨文化商務交際能力。③系統(tǒng)掌握國際商務的基本知識和技能。④具有第二外國語的初步應用能力。⑤掌握文獻檢索、資料查詢的基本方法，具有初步科學研究能力，用英語撰寫與國際商務相關的畢業(yè)論文。

可以看出，兩所學校在培養(yǎng)目標和具體要求上都大同小異，都強調了對學生語言技能，商務知識，跨文化交際能力和二外水平的培養(yǎng)。

2.2 課程設置比較

英語語言類課程：北京對外經濟貿易大學：56%， 廣東外語外貿大學63%。

英語文化類課程：北京對外經濟貿易大學：17%， 廣東外語外貿大學8%。

商務類課程：北京對外經濟貿易大學：27%， 廣東外語外貿大學29%。

（1） 英語語言類課程。

北京對外經濟貿易大學：綜合英語、 英語聽說、 英語語音、 閱讀指導、 英語寫作、 第二外語、語言學導論（英）、 傳意學導（英）、 英語文體學、英語公眾演講、 交替口譯（一）（英）、英語論文寫作、高級商務英語聽說、商務英語寫作。

廣東外語外貿大學：綜合英語、商務英語、英語寫作、商務英語 寫作、高級英語閱讀與寫作、高級英語閱讀與寫作、英語聽力、英語口語、商務英語聽說、英漢口譯、英漢筆譯。

（2） 英語文化類課程。

北京對外經濟貿易大學：英美文學導論（英）、歐洲文化（英）、 美國文化（英）、歐美戲劇鑒賞（英）、散文（下轉第165頁）（上接第147頁）分析、跨文化交際導論（英）、個人商務交際技能（英） 、 跨文化商務交流（英）。

廣東外語外貿大學：英語國家社會與文化、英美文學和跨文化商務交際。

（3）商務類課程（略）。

可以看出，兩所學校在英語語言類和文化類課程比例上差異性較大，筆者認為這種差異受地域性特征影響。北京作為政治文化中心，相應加重了英語文化課程培養(yǎng)學生的跨文化交際能力。而廣東外語外貿大學坐落于國際貿易中心廣東省，在商務英語專業(yè)下細分為四個方向，以服務于國際貿易不同需求。

2.3 師資結構比較

2008年，對外經貿英語學院成功申報了商務英語國家級教學團隊，教學主要圍繞語言技能、商務知識、跨文化交流、人文素養(yǎng)四大模塊展開。

而廣東外語外貿大學商務英語學院設有五個研究中心，分別為商務翻譯研究中心，法律語言學研究中心，商務英語研究中心，國際商務研究中心以及跨文化商務研究中心，約有1/3的既掌握語言又掌握商科知識的復合型教師。

3 加強高校商務英語專業(yè)建設的一些思考

面對這種新的復合型人才需求形式，高校商務英語專業(yè)要找到合適的專業(yè)定位，逐步改善目前的專業(yè)建設情況。

3.1 培養(yǎng)模式市場化

商務英語專業(yè)培養(yǎng)模式應以市場為導向，結合地方經濟文化的特性。通過本文對對外經貿和廣東外語外貿大學比較也可以看出兩所高校在培養(yǎng)模式上地域性差異特征。

3.2 人才國際化

從對外經貿和廣東外語外貿大學培養(yǎng)目標可以看出，商務英語專業(yè)作為服務于全球化和國際化的應用型學科，更應以培養(yǎng)國際化人才為目標，加強學生外語水平，計算機應用能力和專業(yè)知識等硬件方面的培養(yǎng)，也應注重學生國際視野，人文素養(yǎng)，人際交往等方面的教育。

3.3 課程系統(tǒng)化

專業(yè)課程體系是教學計劃的主要內容，也是應用型人才培養(yǎng)的關鍵。商務英語專業(yè)課程設置上要合理處理語言類課程和商務類課程關系，學生知識結構和能力培養(yǎng)的關系。筆者認為商務英語專業(yè)課程設置應包括語技能，商務知識，跨文化交流，人文素養(yǎng)，計算機及實習課程等方面內容。

3.4 教學案例化

作為哈佛商學院MBA教學的代名詞，案例教學化在我國也得到不斷應用和推廣。案例教學法對加強商務英語教學的實用性和實踐性，培養(yǎng)學生的交際能力和實際解決問題的能力都具有重大的指導意義。

3.5 教師復合化

篇（5）

四六級考試在之前大學生英語水平較低的情況下，確實促進了大學英語教學的發(fā)展，推動了大學生英語水平的普遍提高。但是隨著現在中小學階段英語教學水平的不斷提升與投入的不斷加大，四六級考試嚴重地阻礙了大學英語向學生提出的更高的英語能力要求，阻礙了通用英語向學術英語（EAP）或專門用途英語（ESP）轉移的進程。雖然其推動了大學基礎英語教學的發(fā)展，并使之長盛不衰，但同時阻礙了大學朝專業(yè)英語教學轉移和發(fā)展的進程。

大學英語四六級考試順應潮流，修訂目標定位，其意義是極其深遠的。這一舉措表明，一個硬性的、統(tǒng)一的教學要求時代的結束，以及一個強調個性化和多元化的后大學英語教學時代的到來（蔡基剛，2007）。

2.大學英語四、六級及大學英語教學面臨的挑戰(zhàn)

一個如此大規(guī)模的考試，在長達26年的時間內穩(wěn)定發(fā)展，這一基本事實證明大學英語四六級考試適應了社會的需要，得到了社會的普遍認同，產生了良好的社會效益，也為我國大學英語教學質量的提高作出了巨大的貢獻。

然而，在當今大學生英語水平不斷提高，社會和學科不斷發(fā)展變化的情況下，必須對其重新定位。根據2003年教育部基礎教育司頒布的普通高中英語課程標準，其中規(guī)定了今后高中畢業(yè)生必須達到的七級標準和進一步提高英語綜合語言運用能力的八級與九級標準，“八級”詞匯量要求在3300字左右，優(yōu)秀高中畢業(yè)生要達到九級水平，詞匯量為4500；2004年教育部高教司制定了大學英語教學基本要求（試行），核心就是突出聽說能力的培養(yǎng)和推動基于多媒體的大學英語教學模式，大學四級考試是檢測學生達到大學英語課程“一般要求”的考試，詞匯量要求在4500字左右，六級考試是大學英語“較高要求”的測試。高中課程和大學英語課程重復率高，很多詞匯、語法都是高中學過的東西，大學英語受到中學英語和英語專業(yè)的雙面夾擊，必須尋求新的出路。因此，服務于大學英語教學的四六級考試也應隨之改革。

2.1大學英語教學改革新方向

英語水平是構成大學生綜合素質的重要方面之一。大學英語是高等學校非英語專業(yè)大學生必修的一門基礎課程，是基礎教學課程體系中重要的核心課程。大學英語課程的教學質量直接關系到高等學校學生的總體培養(yǎng)質量，傳統(tǒng)意義上的大學英語指的就是基礎英語教學。

目前許多名校，如清華北大已經取消了大學英語課程的開設。學生認為英語基礎已經在中學階段打好，開設基礎英語課程等于重學高中階段學習過的知識。因此，把目標轉為注重學生學術英語能力培養(yǎng)，為專業(yè)化國際交流提供支撐。這一改革適應了專業(yè)院系和學生的需求，得到了學校的支持。香港高校的大學英語教學目標非常明確，他們的目的是幫助學生獲得學術英語能力，以適應專業(yè)學習和未來工作的需要。由于目前香港高校新生的英語水平離這樣的課程目標還有較大距離，他們就需要學習在中學里沒有學過的EAP課程。內地高校大學英語教學目標含糊，學生和學校只能把四六級考試作為學習的終極目標。由于這個目標在新生英語水平不斷提高的背景下，可以在越來越短的時間甚至零時間里實現，這樣學分的壓縮和課程的萎縮自然不可避免。因此，大學英語應該借鑒香港及國外的先進經驗，才能適應時代的發(fā)展。

我國幅員廣闊，各地區(qū)、各大學的教師整體水平和生源狀況存在差別，國家和地方對不同類型高校的投入不一樣，學生的學習條件也不盡相同。對于一些入學英語基礎比較差、基本的聽說讀寫能力都不具備的學生，大學英語教學還是十分必要的。這就需要各個高校在學生大一期間就要確定學生的水平，判斷學生是否需要修完四個學期的大學英語必修課程。對于那些基礎已經達到一般要求的學生，即通過四級的學生，可以根據自身水平，給學生開設相關的專業(yè)英語或實用英語課程。

大學生學習英語的目的應該是了解專業(yè)前沿的國際發(fā)展，增強在科學技術上的學術競爭力。真正符合大學英語教學改革要“切實提高大學生的專業(yè)英語水平和直接使用英語從事科研的能力”。了解國際前沿的前提應該是先打好基礎，這就要靠大學英語即通用英語打基礎。

2.2四、六級考試面臨的問題

鑒于四、六級考試在社會上的認可度，英語成績較差的大學生把大部分時間都花在英語的學習上，通過大學英語四級考試必須奮斗整個四年；成績好的學生為準備其他各類英語考試，也奮斗了整個四年。這種學習熱情的錯位，極大地影響了他們的專業(yè)學習，違背了大學教學的真正目的。

此外，作為一項重要的教學評估手段，其對教學等方面產生的巨大影響已為大家所公認。很多同學通過四、六級考試后就沾沾自喜，從此放棄了英語學習。根據對武漢當地大學一些學生的調查，學生反映：“通過了四級、六級考試，自己覺得是英語高手。但碰到英文文章，心中頓時務實起來，通篇都是生詞，一小時只能看幾行。寫的英語論文，外國人看不懂。學了一些日?？谡Z，但跟老外交流膽怯。學校中實際生活如上機房、做實驗、選課、搞課題研究都不會說。”筆者親歷的湖北省眾多高校的一線老師們的意見也不比學生少：學生四、六級考試過關之后，英文文獻讀不了，英文論文寫得一塌糊涂，未能實現與國際社會接軌的大學人才培養(yǎng)目標。

四、六級考試的重要性，引發(fā)了一系列問題，大學英語教學成為應試教育，社會上的不法分子為了獲利，制造作弊器，銷售四、六級答案，很多高校把四、六級通過率當做衡量教學的唯一標準。四、六級在不斷改革，2005年從以前的100分滿分值改為710分滿分，大大增加了聽力的分值比例，把聽說交際能力放在了重要位置。2012年12月新推出的多題多卷，有效防止了作弊現象，其還有待進一步改革，服務于大學英語教學，保障其效度跟信度。

四、六級考試應該反自身的優(yōu)缺點，不斷進行改革，適應時代的需求，為更好地服務大學英語教學提供支持。討論大學英語四、六級考試通用英語定位還是學術英語定位，不論是對于挽救考試本身，還是對于促進我國大學英語健康發(fā)展，都有很深刻的理論意義和現實意義。

3.改革措施與建議

3.1借鑒國外先進經驗

大學英語四、六級考試應當與國際先進做法接軌，不斷改進技術手段，引入計算機網絡化的考試技術，使考試更具科學性和準確性。網考有很多優(yōu)點：（1）可以借助多媒體模擬更真實的交際場景，使測試由靜態(tài)變?yōu)閯討B(tài)，使英語的使用更加接近生活。（2）可以節(jié)省資源，降低印卷、運輸、分發(fā)、保管等方面的工作強度。（3）網考具有測驗周期短的特點，能夠增加每年考試的次數，同時實現一人一卷模式，有效防止考前泄題或考試過程中的作弊行為，提高考試的安全性。

美國教育服務中心（ETS）推行的托福考試是針對留學生的學術英語水平考試，是一場職場英語的水平考試。雅思考試由英國文化協會、劍橋大學考試局及澳大利亞國際教育發(fā)展署共同主辦。雅思分學術類和普通類兩種題型，學術類主要適合留學，普通類主要適合移民。鑒于此，國內的CET要想長遠地立足于國際社會，也要開發(fā)自己的獨特測試種類。比如當下流行的檢測學生基礎英語水平的大學公共英語考試，也要服務于專門英語（EPS）教學，為EPS開辟新的測試。

3.2課程設置

大學英語教學應該改變傳統(tǒng)的所有本科生都進行四個學期的大學英語必修課的局面，壓縮大學英語的學分，將其用來開設專門用途英語和學術英語，由學生根據自己的需要和專業(yè)需求選擇，取消綜合英語（或叫大學英語）這個由精讀演變而來的傳統(tǒng)課程，代之以1～2個學分的、比較專項的閱讀、聽力、口語、寫作、語法等小課程。

3.3教師層面

大學英語教師應該接受培訓，為開設各個專業(yè)的學科英語做準備。同時控制從英語專業(yè)的碩士生或博士生中招聘單純?yōu)樯洗髮W基礎英語課的教師。教學管理者和課程規(guī)劃者只有充分了解本校學習者的外語學習需求，才能對課程進行合理設置，制訂出適合本校學生的英語教學改革方案和教學模式，因需施教，收效才更直接可觀，才更有利于提高英語教學水平。

將英語教學的重心逐漸從大學下移至中小學，為大學生學英語減負，使之有更多時間學好專業(yè)，努力創(chuàng)新。分管大學和中小學外語教學的教育部門有必要相互協調配合，制訂規(guī)劃，加速這一進程。中小學是學好英語最重要的階段，是英語教學杠桿的支點，最需要優(yōu)秀的英語教師，最需要教育部門的重視，最需要國家投入，投入的效益也最高。

3.4政府層面

加大中小學英語教師的培訓力度。國家增加投入，派遣英語教師出國學習，或聘請外語教學專家培訓英語教師，提高外語教學理論水平和英語運用能力，讓教師明白外語是怎樣學會的，知道怎樣教，自覺抵制應試教育。多邀請英語國家的大中小學生來華與我國學生交流互動，創(chuàng)造英語學習環(huán)境，讓我國學生體驗英語的真實使用。

篇（6）

隨著Internet技術的迅猛發(fā)展，經濟全球化和教育國際化進程不斷加快，中國高等教育面臨著新的機遇和挑戰(zhàn)。中國加入WTO及北京2008奧運會的舉行，促進了中外交流活動日益頻繁。如何培養(yǎng)新時期需要的復合型(專業(yè)+外語、知識+技能)人才，成為高等教育的首要任務。旅游高等教育以培養(yǎng)高級旅游涉外管理人才為主要目的，這些人才諸如導游、接待服務人員不僅要具備扎實的專業(yè)基礎知識，又要了解國內外旅游業(yè)發(fā)展現狀，而且還要能夠用英語思維直接與外國游客進行交流并提供優(yōu)質服務，樹立良好的形象。這給旅游高等教育人才培養(yǎng)的內涵提出了更高的要求。而雙語教學集專業(yè)學習、英語學習為一體，在此方面發(fā)揮著巨大的作用。如何在旅游高等教育中實施雙語教學成為當前眾多旅游教育者關注的熱點問題之一。本文就旅游高等教育實施雙語教學中的教材選擇、師資配備、學生需求、教學方法與教學模式等方面進行探討，以期為旅游高等教育實施雙語教學的進一步開展指明方向。

一、雙語教學及其含義

雙語教學(BilingualTeaching)，根據英國《朗文應用語言學詞典》的定義:The use of a second or foreign language in school for the teaching of content subjects，意思是在學校里使用第二語言或者外語進行學科的教學?？魉?Cummins)對其進一步解釋:“在學生教育生涯的某一階段使用兩種(或者更多)教學媒介語。這兩種語言被用來教授科目內容而不單純是語言課程本身”[1]。隨著文化交流的擴展與深入，英語已成為當今世界通用語言，當前我國的雙語教學主要是指用英語作為專業(yè)教學的媒介。

雙語教學是將外語直接應用于語言學科以外的其他學科的教學，通過用外語學習其他學科知識達到掌握外語的目的，使外語學習與專業(yè)學科知識的獲取同步。它不同于英語專業(yè)教學，英語專業(yè)教學側重對英語語言本身的學習，包括詞匯、語法、修辭等，強調對語言本身的學習，很少涉及其他非語言學科的專業(yè)課知識，主要培養(yǎng)英語語言理論和應用人才。專業(yè)課雙語教學只把英語作為教學媒介，側重對專業(yè)知識的系統(tǒng)講解，不強調學習英語本身，以培養(yǎng)非英語學科的人才為主。因此，雙語教學課堂絕非英語教學課堂。

二、旅游高等教育實施雙語教學的必要性

1.開展雙語教學是旅游院校教學改革的需要

國家教育部在2001年出臺了第四號文件《關于加強高等學校本科教學工作提高教學質量的若干意見》，畢業(yè)論文 明確要求各高等院校在3年內要開設5%-10%的“雙語”教學課程，特別是一些國際通用性、可比性強的專業(yè)和學科應盡快與國際接軌。時至今日，各高等院校相繼進行了雙語教學的探索、研究和實踐。由于旅游活動具有很強的文化性、實踐性和涉外性，旅游高等教育更要首當其沖。面對新時期的機遇和挑戰(zhàn)，新型的旅游人才不僅要精通旅游專業(yè)知識和漢語文化，還要通曉外語、熟悉外國文化、適應國際競爭的需要。雙語教學把培養(yǎng)學生的語言能力和專業(yè)技能合二為一，是培養(yǎng)旅游高級復合型人才的有效方法，也是我國高等教育實現從“量的擴張”到“質的提升”的有效途徑。隨著高校教學改革的推進，有些高校將取消專業(yè)英語課程，而增開雙語教學科目。雙語教學已成為衡量本科教育水平，突出高校辦學特色，進行教學改革的重要舉措。因此，雙語教學是目前教育教學改革研究的需要。

2.實施雙語教學是旅游學科和旅游教育發(fā)展的需要

旅游學是一門新興的綜合性學科，最先出現于西方發(fā)達的歐美國家，這些國家無論是旅游學科體系的建設，還是旅游教育都相對成熟，研究成果碩果累累;而我國旅游學的發(fā)展始于20世紀80年代，與之相比還比較落后。因此，需要借鑒國外經驗。新型的旅游人才不僅要具有競爭能力、創(chuàng)新能力、交際能力，而且還要具備不斷獲取信息和處理信息的自學能力。旅游高等教育人才不僅要讓學生及時了解國內旅游最新動態(tài)、發(fā)展趨勢，同時也要及時了解國外相關狀況，以更好的適應國際社會競爭的需要。雙語教學為學生構筑了一個國際化的平臺，使學生更多地了解客源地文化背景、價值觀念、思維模式，學生以國際化的視野來思考問題，憑借語言優(yōu)勢，能更直接、更迅速地把握學科、行業(yè)最新的發(fā)展態(tài)勢，開拓視野、拓寬旅游知識，發(fā)展專業(yè)技能，借鑒國外旅游業(yè)發(fā)展的成功經驗，更好地認識、解決本國旅游發(fā)展所出現的問題。因此，雙語教學是溝通旅游專業(yè)人才所需理論、語言和技能的一座橋梁，是完善旅游學科的發(fā)展和旅游教育人才培養(yǎng)的有效途徑。

3.實施雙語教學是提高學生技能和提升就業(yè)率的需要

傳統(tǒng)的旅游教育模式將專業(yè)教育和語言教育相分離，使旅游高等教育在相當程度上無法滿足行業(yè)發(fā)展對雙語人才的需求。旅游人才，尤其是占到35%的旅游各專業(yè)本科層次的畢業(yè)生，因為語言能力和跨文化交流能力的約束，在一定程度上出現了職業(yè)生涯的落差，導致旅游人才的流失[3]，從而造成旅游本科生就業(yè)率較低，生源不足等一系列問題。雙語教學為學生提供了良好的外語交際環(huán)境，在某種程度上勢必增加學生學習外語的壓力和動力，有效提高學生的英語水平，在求職就業(yè)方面占有競爭優(yōu)勢。實踐證明，雙語教學不僅能幫助學生鞏固已學的英語知識，增加專業(yè)詞匯量，還能滿足其強烈的求知欲望，激發(fā)學生學習專業(yè)知識的積極性，使學生能積極借助外文書刊和網絡及時了解旅游業(yè)的最新學術動態(tài)，提高學生的專業(yè)技能。

4.實施雙語教學是提高教師隊伍素質的需要

新時期的要求不僅對高等教育、學生提出了更高的要求，同時也對旅游專業(yè)的師資隊伍提出了更高的要求。隨著我國教育國際交流的日趨頻繁，國內外大學之間的學術交流及其他領域的合作不斷加深與擴展，各國互派教師訪學，要求教師不僅懂外語，還能用外語進行學術交流。我國目前高校的旅游專業(yè)的青年教師大多具有碩士及以上學位，具有六級英語水平，如果在高校不開展雙語教學，英語得不到再學習，就會導致英語水平逐步退化，客觀上造成了一種人力資源的浪費。相反，通過雙語教學，教師通過備課查閱外文文獻資料，用雙語授課及課外輔導，教學相長，不斷積累英語知識和專業(yè)知識，使教師綜合素質顯著提高，適應教育國際化的要求。

三、旅游高等教育實施雙語教學應注意的問題

1.選擇適宜的雙語教學學科

學科是雙語教學實施的關鍵，它決定了雙語教學的內容、方法及目標。根據旅游高等教育的特點及雙語人才培養(yǎng)的目標，應選擇實用性強、文化性強及基礎性強的課程。醫(yī)學論文 實用性即具備鮮明的實用特色，與旅游的實際工作緊密結合的課程，如《模擬導游》、《飯店管理》等。實施雙語教學，既可將語言教學融入專業(yè)教學，又便于實踐特色導入教學，有助于提高旅游高等教育專業(yè)人才培養(yǎng)的質量，充分實現雙語教學的價值。文化特色既是課程注重對中國文化的對外傳播，又注重對外國文化及其思維模式的把握，如《中國旅游文化》、《客源國概況》，這些課程導入雙語教學，有利于培養(yǎng)學生運用兩種語言思維的能力，更好地完成對外交流。為更好地達到雙語教學的效果，還應開展一些基礎課程，如《旅游學概論》、《旅游市場營銷》等。雙語教學積累一定的專業(yè)詞匯，能夠奠定理論和語言基礎。

需要指出的是，雙語教學科目并非越多越好，學科的選擇應綜合考慮教學大綱、師資水平、學生水平等因素，避免盲目上馬，一哄而上。

2.確立適當的雙語教學模式

雙語教學有3種模式:沉浸型雙語教學(學校使用一種不是學生在家使用的語言進行教學)、保持型雙語教學(在學生剛進入學校時使用本族語，然后逐漸使用第二種語言進行教學，其他學科仍使用母語教學)、過渡型雙語教學(學生進入學校以后部分或全部使用母語，然后逐步轉變?yōu)橹皇褂玫诙Z言進行教學)。根據中國地質大學管理學院旅游系教學培養(yǎng)模式(“3+1”模式:學生在3年內修完大學本科的全部課程，最后一年到相關旅游企業(yè)進行實習)和學生的綜合英語水平，我們采取了保持型雙語教學模式和實踐模式相結合，即:在專業(yè)培養(yǎng)計劃中選定幾門學科進行雙語教學，同時結合畢業(yè)實習的實踐，充分利用旅游企業(yè)、社會培訓機構等大旅游教育環(huán)境，拓寬學生的語言攝入、演練環(huán)境，進而達到雙語教學的目標。

3.采用靈活的雙語教學方法

雙語教學課堂不是老師按照中文講義的逐字翻譯，它的目標是提高學生用英語進行思維和表達的能力，必須強調課堂的互動性和學生學習的積極性。

因此，雙語教學應確立以學生為中心的教學理念。老師應根據教學內容、學生水平適時采取多種教學方法。在雙語教學實踐中，筆者采用了如下的教學手段:在雙語教學的初級階段，學生的詞匯量不大，英語水平不高，可以采用英語板書、漢語為主講解的教學方式，提問法(Question)、練習法(Exercise)、多媒體(Multimedia)教學等是較好的教學方法;隨著雙語教學的延伸，學生英語水平不斷提高，此時可采用以英語為主、英語思維的教學方式，討論法(Discuss)、案例分析法(Case Analysis)、角色扮演法(Role-play)教學效果明顯。

四、旅游高等教育導入雙語教學的對策

雙語教學對實現旅游高等教育的培養(yǎng)目標有著深遠的意義，是目前解決“雙語、雙文、雙能”的旅游復合型人才的有效途徑之一，我國很多高校的旅游專業(yè)已開始了雙語教學的初步研究和探索，但距教育部的目標，還有一定距離。究其原因，雙語教學的開展還面臨著諸多實際困難。

1.提高師資水平是實施雙語教學的關鍵

雙語教師必須具備扎實的雙語知識(漢語和英語)，具備一定的雙語教學理論知識和精深的學科專業(yè)知識。而目前我國旅游專業(yè)的雙語教學面臨師資嚴重不足，知識結構單一且整體水平不高。師資水平影響到整個雙語教學水平和質量的高低。提高雙語教學師資水平的途徑有:

(1)加大雙語教師的培養(yǎng)和培訓力度。依托高校培養(yǎng)，開設培養(yǎng)雙語師資的專業(yè)，為雙語教學源源不斷地輸送雙語人才，這是長遠的解決辦法。培訓是短期解決師資的有效途徑，雙語教師的培訓應注重整合高校資源，提倡院系之間的橫向聯合，可以從兩個方面開展，一是對有良好專業(yè)基礎的教師展開語言強化培訓，二是對具有一定語言基礎的教師開展旅游學科知識培訓，從而建立一支跨學科、多層次的雙語教學師資隊伍。此外，也可選派中青年教師出國深造、參加學術交流，拓寬教師培訓途徑。

(2)引進旅游專業(yè)的外籍教師。聘請旅游專業(yè)學科具有一定漢語知識的外教。聘請外籍教師不僅能解決純正的英語發(fā)音和獨特的英語思維問題，同時也能把國外先進的旅游管理觀念和知識帶進課堂，提高學生的專業(yè)知識水平。

(3)校企聯合，聘請兼職教師。目前，在我國旅游業(yè)及飯店管理業(yè)中，不乏一些高級管理人才，他們具備良好的英語技能和相當的工作經驗，在雙語教學中具有獨特的優(yōu)勢。聘用兼職教師，實行專、兼職結合，校企聯合也是解決我國旅游高等教育雙語教學師資的有效方法。

2.激發(fā)學生學習興趣是實施雙語教學的基礎

激發(fā)學生的學習興趣，一方面需要老師飽含感情地進行教學，運用多種教學方法，開展教學內容豐富、交際形式多樣、師生關系融洽的雙語活動;另一方面，老師應充分利用雙語教學會給學生提供更為強烈的學習目的和學習動機的優(yōu)勢，英語論文 發(fā)揮學生主觀能動性，通過學生自己探索、團隊合作、自主學習，培養(yǎng)學生興趣，達到教學效果?？紤]到學生英語水平的個體差異，給予充分的調查和考核，開展雙語課的必修課與選修課并舉，給學生更多的選擇。學生的英語水平不高會導致學習缺乏信心，要及時調整，決不能“揀了芝麻、丟了西瓜”。

3.編制雙語教學教材資料是實施雙語教學的根本

教材是開展雙語教學的載體，沒有教材，雙語教學便成了“無源之水”。雙語教學的開展必須由依托外語原版教材和教學參考書為依托，這樣才能保證師生接觸到“原汁原味”的專業(yè)內容，也避免一些“誤譯”。但目前受到信息傳播、資金、適用性等方面的限制，使用原版教材困難較大。解決的辦法主要有:①通過對原版教材進行改編、整合，利用網絡知識積累雙語教學素材;②增加錄像、多媒體等視聽教材;③充分利用現有的雙語教學參考書目和學科教材等手段，根據雙語教學的目的、任務、現有條件，組織專業(yè)教師、外語專家等相關人員編制適用于本專業(yè)的教材。

4.完善的政策支持是開展雙語教學的保障

雙語教學是一個復雜的系統(tǒng)工程，牽涉到諸多方面的改革:如教學體制、考試制度、學生評價體系等。雙語教學不僅需要教師、學生的努力，同時，還需要學校和整個社會的配合及政策支持。首先，應加大雙語教學的獎勵措施。勿庸置疑，雙語教學的老師和學生要付出更多的時間和精力才能達到較好的教學效果，學校在制定有關政策時應予以充分考慮，如增加雙語教師的業(yè)績工作量，對率先實施雙語教學并取得良好教學效果的老師給予必要的獎勵，對學生雙語考試的成績予以備注說明(為學生就業(yè)考慮)，以及在同樣學時情況下給學生提供更多的學分優(yōu)勢等，激勵廣大教師和學生積極參與到雙語教學中來。其次，要建立雙語教學效果的評估體系，使雙語教學做到有章可循，如雙語教學英語使用的比例，考試命題與答題是否要用英語以及評估雙語教學質量的標準等等。

[參　考　文　獻]

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[2]　謝雨萍.關于旅游管理專業(yè)雙語教學的實踐與思考[J].桂林旅游高等?？茖W校學報，2005，(4):94-96.

[3]　鄧俊，蔣昕.論旅游高等教育中的雙語教學實踐[J].旅游學刊·旅游人才與教育教學特刊，2003:38-41.